Choking is the result of the lodgement of a foreign object in the casualty’s airway. In some instances, the object lodges at the entry to the airway (partial obstruction), but does not enter the airway itself. This will cause the casualty to start coughing which is the body’s way of trying to expel the object out.

If the object is firmly lodged in the airway (complete obstruction), coughing at least keeps it high in the windpipe, though it will not necessarily expel it.

Signs and Symptoms

• Persistent cough
• Inability to breathe, speak, cry or cough
• Clutching at the throat
• Anxiety, restlessness
• Collapse and unconsciousness
  

First aid management

• If partial blockage – encourage the casualty to keep coughing
• If complete blockage – call for medical assistance urgently
• Position the casualty – adults on their side, children heads lower than their body
• Deliver up to five sharp back blows between the shoulder blades, and clear any obstructions that may have come out.
• If back blows are unsuccessful perform five chest thrusts ( the same as if delivering CPR chest compressions).
• If the casualty has stopped breathing commence CPR.

Do Not

• Apply pressure below the ribs
• Use abdominal thrusts on infants
• Try to remove an obstruction by putting your fingers in the mouth of an infant

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In order for us to function our bodies need sugar for energy. The sugar comes from the food we eat and as the food progresses through the digestive system, the body breaks down food into sugars, which are absorbed into the bloodstream. Insulin, a hormone produced in the pancreas, is necessary to take sugar into the cells. Without a proper balance of sugar and insulin the cells will starve and the body will not function properly.
There are two major types of diabetes Type I which is insulin-dependent diabetes and occurs because the body is producing little or no insulin at all. Type II is non-insulin dependent, this occurs because even though the body is producing insulin, it is not producing enough for the body’s needs.

Signs and Symptoms

Changes in the level of consciousness, including dizziness, drowsiness and confusion, Sometimes mistaken for drunkenness

• Rapid breathing
• Rapid pulse
• The casualty feeling and looking unwell

First Aid Management

• If the casualty is conscious and able to swallow, give a sweetened drink.
• When the casualty is more alert, they then need to eat something
• If after several minutes there is no improvement, seek urgent medical attention
• If the casualty is unconcious, seek urgent medical attention and monitor their airway and breathing, if necessary commence CPR.

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In every emergency situation, you must first look for conditions that are an immediate threat to the casualty’s life.

By following the Emergency Action Plan you can help save someone’s life.

D - Danger

To yourself first, then others, then the casualty

R - Response

Talk and Touch - ask them to open their eyes and/or squeeze your hands

A - Airway

Check that the airway is clear

B - Breathing

Look, Listen and Feel for 10 seconds to check if the casualty is breathing

If breathing, roll them into the recovery position and call 000

If not breathing, call 000 and then give them two rescue breaths

C - CPR

With no visible signs of life, commence CPR at 30 chest compressions followed by two breaths

D - Defibrillator

Attach defibrillator (AED) as soon as possible and follow the prompts

Continue CPR until qualified personnel arrive or signs of life return

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When the normal function of the brain is disrupted by injury, disease, fever or infection, the electrical activity of the brain becomes irregular. This irregularity can cause a loss of body control, known as a seizure. Epilepsy is usually controlled with medication, although some people with epilepsy can have seizures from time to time. Seizures range from mild blackouts, to sudden uncontrolled muscular contractions, lasting for several minutes.

Signs & Symptoms

The signs and symptoms of epilepsy will vary according to the types of seizure they are having. They may include:

• Noisy breathing or holding their breath
• Body stiffness and arched back
• Eyes staring or rolled
• Disorientation or confusion

First Aid Management

• Observe DRABCD
• Protect the casualty from injury
• Monitor the airway
• Be reassuring and comforting
• Stay with the casualty until they are fully conscious and aware of their surroundings

Advanced Management

If the seizure lasts for longer than a few minutes, the casualty has repeated seizures, the casualty is injured as a result of the seizure, they are pregnant or have a medical condition, you must call an ambulance.

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Heat related conditions are those conditions brought on by exposure to high temperatures and humidity. The most spectacular example of a serious heat related problem occurs in long distance running events, which are conducted during hot and humid conditions. Overexposure to heat can easily occur in workers who work in the direct sun such as construction workers, landscape gardeners etc. Overexposure to heat may induce heat cramps, heat exhaustion and/or heat stroke.

Heat Cramps

Heat cramps are caused by the loss of complex salts (electrolytes) through an imbalance in the body’s fluid requirements – the body is losing more fluids than it is replacing. This causes the hard working muscles to lose their vital electrolyte balance, causing muscular contraction (cramping).

Signs and Symptoms

• Pale, clammy skin
• Cramping pains in the limbs or abdomen
• Uncontrolled spasms of affected limb(s)

First aid management

• Rest in the shade
• Gently stretch the affected muscle
• Apply an ice pack
• Give small sips of clear fluids
• Avoid any further exercise

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Heat Exhaustion

Heat exhaustion is the most common form of heat-related illness. Although heat exhaustion is commonly associated with athletes, it also affects fire-fighters, construction workers and others who work in a hot humid environment.

Signs and Symptoms

• Pale, cool clammy skin
• Rapid breathing
• Profuse and prolonged sweating
• Cramps in the limbs and/or the abdomen
• Thirst, nausea and/or vomiting
• Constant headache
• Exhaustion and lethargy

First aid management

• Complete rest in the shade
• Remove any unnecessary clothing
• Cool the casualty by sponging with water
• Give small sips of clear fluids
• Seek medical attention

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Heat Stroke

Heat stroke is a potentially fatal condition. Heat stroke develops when the body’s systems are so overwhelmed by heat, they stop functioning. Sweating stops because the body’s fluid levels are low. When sweating stops, the body cannot cool itself effectively causing the body temperature to rise. The temperature, soon reaches a level at which the brain and other vital organs, such as the heart and kidneys begin to fail. If the body is not cooled, convulsions, unconsciousness and death will occur.

Signs and Symptoms

Heat stroke is a serious medical emergency. The signs of heat stroke include:

• High body temperature ( often as high as 40 degrees C)
• Red, hot, dry skin
• Deteriorating conscious level
• Rapid pulse, gradually weakening
• Vomiting
• Collapse and seizures
• Coma – death
  

First aid management

• Move the casualty to a shaded area
• Remove any unnecessary clothing
• Cool the casualty by sponging with water
• Give small sips of clear fluids
• Seek urgent medical attention

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External bleeding is recognisable and usually associated with a wound. There are many different types of wounds and a break in the continuity of the skin, such as, abrasions, lacerations etc.

When bleeding occurs, the body immediately begins a complex chain of events. The brain, heart and lungs try to compensate for blood loss, so as to maintain the flow of oxygen-rich blood, to not only the body but vital organs also.

If the bleeding is serious enough, the blood volume will decrease and whether or not the bleeding is external or internal it can be life-threatening.

Management of External Bleeding

• If available put on disposable gloves
• Look at the wound to ensure there are no foreign objects
• Apply direct pressure over the wound with a sterile or clean pad.
• Raise and support the injured part above the level of the heart if possible
• Apply a dressing and a firm bandage to hold the pad in place
• Reassess circulation every 20-30 minutes
• If after rechecking the pad and bandage, you notice that there is still blood loss occurring, you may remove the blood soaked bandage but leave the initial pad in place. If after reapplying the bandage, blood loss is still occurring, remove all pads and bandages and apply fresh ones.

Note: If all methods of bleeding control have failed then a tourniquet may be applied. This is a broad (at least 5cm) bandage applied well above the bleeding point. The bandage should be tight enough to stop all circulation to the injured limb and control bleeding. Note the time the tourniquet was applied and pass this on to emergency personnel.

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Be prepared for emergencies by having a well-stocked first aid kit. These can be kept in the car, in the home or at the workplace. First aid kits can contain different contents, depending on your specific requirements and situation.

Some of the contents of a first aid kit could include:

Gauze swabs

for cleaning wounds

Disposable gloves

prevent infection

Adhesive Strips (bandaids)

for minor wounds

Triangular bandages

for slings, used as a pad

Roller bandages

for bleeding control

Gauze swabs

for cleaning wounds

Disposable gloves

for infection control

Bandaids

for minor wounds

Scissors

for cutting materials

Safety pins

used to keep slings in place

Note pad and pencil

for recording information

Sterile eye wash solution

for irrigating eyes

Sterile eye pads

for wounds to the eyes

CPR barrier device

for preventing communicable diseases

Make sure that all of your family members and staff know where the first aid kit is located so that access to the kit in an emergency is as quick as possible.

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Stonefish, bullrouts and stingrays have spines, spikes or barbs that can inject dangerous venom when they are handled or stepped on.

The signs and symptoms of these stings include:

• Severe pain
• Swelling, an open wounds and discoloration at the bite area
• Panic or irrational behaviour

First aid includes:

• Put hot water as bearable over the affected area. This will help to relieve pain
• Call for medical assistance urgently
• Monitor the Airway, breathing and circulation

Note: If hot water is not available then paradoxically ice may be effective in relieving pain.

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A fracture is a break or crack in a bone, as well as bones that are broken all the way through. Fractures are generally classified as open or closed. An open fracture usually occurs when a limb is severely bent, causing the ends of the bone to tear the skin, and surrounding soft tissues. A closed fracture leaves the skin unbroken and is more common than open fractures.

Signs and Symptoms

• Pain, swelling and deformity
• Discoloration of the skin
• Tenderness
• Movement of limb difficult or impossible
• Coarse grating sound if the bones are rubbing together

First Aid Management

• DRABCD
• Control any bleeding
• Handle gently and immobilise if possible
• Check for adequate circulation
• Seek medical attention

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The body needs to have enough blood volume circulating in order to keep functioning. The four components of blood are:

Red cells

these are produced in the marrow in the large bones such as the arm (humerus) or thigh bone (femur). There are approximately 260 million red cells in every drop of blood.

White cells

help to fight infection. They also produce antibodies, which help the body to resist infection.

Platelets

are disc shaped structures in the blood. They are an essential part of the blood’s clotting mechanism because they bind together. Until clots form, bleeding must be controlled artificially.

Plasma

Plasma is mostly made up of water and because plasma makes up about half of the blood volume, it is essential to maintain blood volume to ensure normal function of the circulatory system.

Blood is circulated around the body through blood vessels. These are: arteries, capillaries and veins. Damage to an artery will cause the blood loss to be bright red and spurting. Damage to veins however will be a darker red and flows. Damage to the capillaries is associated with wounds close to the skin and is a bright red and oozes.

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Internal bleeding is blood loss that it not usually or easily seen. Internal bleeding can be just as serious as external bleeding. Although the blood is not lost from the body, it is lost from the circulatory system and vital organs will be deprived of oxygen.

Visible Internal Bleeding

If the internal bleeding is visible it may be coming from:

• The ear or mouth
• Nose
• Lungs
• Stomach, bowel or intestines
• Rectum or vagina

Signs and symptoms

• Pale, cool and clammy
• Discoloration of the skin in the injured area
• Anxiety or restlessness
• Rapid breathing, rapid weak pulse
• Nausea or vomiting
• Deteriorating conscious state

Management of Internal Bleeding

There is little a first aider can do for internal bleeding other than seek medical attention. Whilst waiting for the ambulance to arrive, follow the general guidelines

• Prevent further injury
• Help the casualty into the most comfortable position
• Maintain normal body temperature
• Reassure the casualty
• Monitor the ABC

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Poisons are substances that can be swallowed, injected, absorbed through the skin or inhaled. Poisoning may be accidental or deliberate (suicide).

If possible try to find out what poison or medicinal substance has been taken, how much has been taken and when it was taken.

If there is no life threatening emergency – call the Poisons Information Centre on

13 11 26

If the situation has become life threatening, for example, the casualty is unconscious or not breathing, then:

• Observe DRABCD
• Call for medical assistance
• Monitor airway, breathing, circulation

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Thousands of Australians die each year as a result of injuries. No one knows for sure how many of these victims died from injuries that could have been prevented.

Accidents are likely to occur in and around the home. As these may often be serious you should do everything you can to prevent them.

Look around your home and see if you can identify any dangerous areas, which you can prevent an accident from occurring, particularly to children.

For example:

• Can children reach hot or dangerous objects?
• Are saucepan handles turned away from the edge?
• Is there a table cloth on the table a child may pull down?
• How many power points are not fitted with safety plugs?
• Are there any medicines or tablets in easy reach of children?
• Do you have any dangerous indoor plants? (i.e. Philodendron and Dieffenbachia)
• Are there any sharp dangerous tools lying around?

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Shock is the failure of the circulatory system to provide adequate oxygen-rich blood to all parts of the body. When vital organs do not receive enough oxygen- rich blood, they fail to function properly.

Causes of shock can include decreased blood volume, disturbances of the heart rhythm and damage to the nervous system.

Signs and Symptoms

Initial signs:

• Pale, cold and clammy
• Usually a weak, rapid pulse
• Rapid breathing
• Faintness or dizziness
Signs and symptoms of severe shock may include all of the above as well as:

• Nausea or vomiting
• Thirst
• Drowsiness/confusion
• Collapse and unconsciousness
  

First Aid Management

• DRABCD
• Control any bleeding
• Reassure the casualty
• Seek medical aid urgently
• Raise the casualty’s legs above the heart unless fractured
• Loosen any tight clothing
• Maintain normal body temperature
• Do not give the casualty food or drink

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Australia is home to many of the most venomous snakes in the world. The effects that snake bites can have will vary depending on the type of snake that has bitten the person. The most serious effect is paralysis of the breathing muscles which can lead to death.

First Aid Management

The most common method of managing a snake bite is the pressure immobilisation technique. This method is effective because the pressure of the bandage over the bite area slows the rate at which venom enters the circulation.

The rescuer should:

• Observe DRABCD and seek urgent medical assistance (000)
• Do not wash any venom away – this is used to identify the snake
• Apply a broad pressure bandage (15cm is possible) over the bite site as soon as possible. If there are no bandages available improvise using whatever is available (a shirt, seatbelt, car seat covers etc)
• In order to further restrict lymphatic flow and to assist in immobilisation of the limb, apply a further pressure bandage, commencing at the fingers or toes and continue upwards covering as much of the limb as possible
• Splint the limb to restrict movement
• Keep the casualty and the limb completely at rest.

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These are injuries that can occur to muscles, ligaments and other soft tissues with or without a fracture. The injuries that most commonly occur are sprains, strains, dislocations and bruising.

It is often as result of a sudden or unexpected wrenching movement at the joint that pulls the bones within the joint too far apart and tears the tissues surrounding the joint.

Sign and Symptoms

• Sudden pain in the joint
• Loss of power and ability to bear weight
• Swelling if near joint
• Tenderness and discoloration

First Aid Management

• The management for soft tissue injuries is based on resting the injured part, applying ice packs to limit swelling and reduce pain, applying a firm compression bandage as support and to further restrict swelling, and elevating the limb. This is known as the RICE treatment
• Rest tends to reduce the flow of blood to a part. Resting the casualty allows the blood pressure and pulse rate to drop, and this also reduces the flow of blood around the body. This helps to reduce bleeding
• Ice helps to limit inflammation and reduce pain by causing the blood vessels to constrict, restricting the amount of fluid and swelling in the injured part
• Compression helps to narrow bleeding vessels and reduce swelling. It also provides support to the injury to reduce the risk of further damage
• Elevation of the injured part helps to reduce the blood pressure and flow of blood.

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Recognising an emergency can be difficult. It is usually a situation such as a car accident, someone has fallen off their bike, or maybe someone has collapsed on the ground. These situations may require you to take immediate action by giving first aid to a casualty who may be injured or suffering from an illness.

Things to look for:

What can you see?

• a bike lying on the ground
• broken glass

What can you hear?

• someone screaming
• someone calling for help
• crashing metal
• screeching tyres

What can you smell?

• petrol fumes
• smoke from a fire

What should you do?

We all respond to emergencies in different ways. Whether trained or untrained, some of us are afraid we will do the wrong thing and make the situation worse. If you are unsure about what to do, call for an ambulance. The worst thing to do is to do nothing.

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